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Title:Religions and Festivals

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

The inhabitants of the Himalayas are a diverse amalgam of people from various ethnic backgrounds (Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Mongoloid and Austro-Asian), leading to a multicultural diversity. This diversity finds vibrant expression in the differing belief systems and forms of religions practiced across the Himalayan region, each with their own set of festivals and customs.

• Religions:The people of the Himalayas follow several religions and in many instances, interaction among ethnic groups has lead to considerable influences of one religion on another. It is interesting to note that the various religions have never been a cause for friction among communities and have traversed social barriers to coalesce into the culture of the region.

• Hinduism is the most widely followed religion with several holy shrines (Amarnath caves in Kashmir, Kedarnath and Badrinath in Uttarakhand, Gangotri and Yamnotri glaciers – the origin of the holy rivers of Ganga and Yamuna and Pasupati temple in Nepal) located in the Himalayas. Lord Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction whose abode is Mount Kailash and various forms of Durga or goddess are revered by the people.

• Buddhism is the religion followed by the people inhabiting Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), Lahaul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Sikkim, Bhutan, parts of Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh. Home to some magnificent monasteries (like the 400 year old Tawang monastery, Lamayuru monastery in Ladakh or Key monastery in Spiti), this land is also famous for being the residence of His Holiness The Dalai Lama.

• The inhabitants of Kashmir mainly follow Islam, which was introduced by traders from Central Asia as well as Muslim invaders.

• Different tribes also follow forms of animist beliefs and religions like Donyi-Polo (the religion venerating the Sun and the Moon). There are small pockets of people following Christianity in some areas.

• Festivals:As a direct impact of the religious diversity of the region, varied festivals are celebrated, replete with vibrant dances and customs that often fascinate an outsider. Festivals not only mark important dates in the religious calendar but also play an economic role in the form of trade fairs where food and other goods are bartered.

• Losar is an important Buddhist festival celebrated in the last week of February. The festival is famous because of the vibrant chham dance, which commemorates the assassination of Langdarma, a cruel Tibetan king of the 9th century, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. The dance is an elaborate display of colourful costumes and masks. The Dosmoche and Hemis festivals are other important Buddhist celebrations. The Namsoong Festival is celebrated by the Lepcha community in Sikkim on the first day of "Kurneet Lovo" (December/January) and continues for a week. It also coincides with the Sonam Lossong festival of the Bhutias.

• Several Hindu festivals are celebrated in the region. Basant Panchmi marks the fifth day of spring, and is celebrated to welcome the spring season. People wear shades of yellow to signify the glory of nature and the end of winter. Baisakhi is celebrated to commemorate the harvest in April. Another festival to celebrate the year’s harvest is Makar Sankranti (Maghey Sankranti in Nepali) in the month of “Magh” (January). Dussehra or Dassai as it is called in Nepali, commemorates the victory of good over evil. Diwali is known as the festival of lights and commemorates the victory of the Hindu king Rama over Ravana. It is celebrated in October-November with great enthusiasm especially in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The Chhari or Manimahesh Yatra is celebrated in August in Manimahesh, located on the Kailash Mount, at the foot of which lies a lake (altitude of 4,115 m). The annual religious procession starts in August and devotees of Lord Shiva cover a challenging 14 km trek from Hadsar to Manimahesh barefoot, chanting prayers. At Bharmour the nomadic Gaddis hold a fair for six days.

• There are several fairs held like the famous La Darcha Fair in Lahaul and Spiti district where woolen and wooden products, food items (Tibetan tea, salt, rice) and metals (copper, gold) are sold. Yaks and Chumurthi horses are bartered in the fair and the evenings are full of dancing, drinking, horseracing and feasting. The Tapkeshwar fair, held on Shivratri (a festival to worship the Hindu god of destruction, Shiva) attracts thousands of devotees to offer their prayers at the banks of the Tons river in Uttarakhand.In recent times, several fairs and festivals are being organized that showcase the cultural variety and exuberance of the Himalayas. This display of the traditional customs and religious practices of the region not only earn revenue for the indigenous people of the area but also allow us to understand its magnificent cultural heritage.

Title:The Ecology of the Himalayas

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

The Himalayas are home to a fascinating diversity of flora and fauna because of the wide spectrum of climate, rainfall, soil and altitude found here. A wide range of altitudes, various geological formations, climatic variations and rich floral and faunal diversity characterize the Himalayas.The species found in the region range from the elusive snow leopard in the snow-bound high altitude areas to the one-horned rhinoceros of the marshy foothills. The floral diversity is a fascinating mixture with prominent medicinal plants, gymnosperms like the cancer curing Taxus baccata, species of Rhododendron, Meconopsis, Gentiana, orchids and numerous species of wild grasses.This treasure of biodiversity and high degree of endemism has lead the region to be identified as a biodiversity hotspot. The spectacular biodiversity of the region can be gauged by the presence of a large number of endemic species – 3,160 plants, 12 mammals, 15 birds, 48 reptiles, 42 amphibians and 33 fish.Several international organizations have devised parameters to assess and conserve the natural resources of the Himalayas. Four of the global biodiversity hotspots identified by Conservation International are found in the Himalayan region namely, the Indo-Burma hotspot, the mountains of Central Asia, the mountains of southwest China and the Himalaya hotspot.Similarly, there are 12 Global 200 Ecoregions found in the Himalayan region indicating their importance as habitats that support unique flora and fauna. Prominent ecoregions are the eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests, western Himalayan temperate forests, Tibetan plateau steppe and eastern Himalayan alpine meadows.According to Birdlife International, 1106 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) are found in the Himalayas while Plantlife International has identified 53 Important Plant Areas (IPAs) for medicinal plants in the region. These indicators demonstrate the astounding variations in habitats found in the Himalayas and the resulting diversity in terms of flora and fauna. Today, this natural heritage of the Himalayas is getting eroded because of pressures like climate change (manifested in the alarming retreat of several glaciers, altered rainfall patterns, onset of floods etc.) and anthropogenic pressures (deforestation, harvesting of economically important floral and faunal species, changing land use patterns, environmentally irresponsible tourism, poaching etc.). Inadequate policies, weak management and institutional structures and inadequate data tend to aggravate the situation. The people living in the Himalayas are very closely linked with their environment, thus making issues of natural resource management socially, economically and ecologically significant. Hence, while trying to comprehend the enormous ecological diversity the Himalayas offer, we must attempt to recognize its ongoing exploitation.

Title:River Systems of the Himalayas

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

The sources of the Himalayan rivers lie in the melting snow and glaciers, which explains the constant flow of these rivers throughout the year. There are 19 major river systems that drain the Himalayas. The waters of these rivers have important economic, social and environmental significance for people living in the Himalayas as well as the vast plains that are drained by the rivers. The two largest river systems have been described below:• The Indus River System, which is mainly fed by glaciers in the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram originates near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, runs through Ladakh (in Jammu & Kashmir, where it meets the river Zanskar) and the northern areas of Gilgit-Baltistan, finally draining into the Arabian Sea off the coast of Karachi (Pakistan The principal tributaries of the Indus are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The Indus is the third largest river in the Indian subcontinent in terms of annual flow (207 cu. km).• The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna River System is made up of three major rivers:1. The Ganga is approximately 2,510 km long rising in Uttarakhand and draining into the Bay of Bengal. The headwaters of the Ganges are composed of various small streams, with the six longest headstreams being Bhagirathi (the source stream, rising at the foot of Gangotri glacier), Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar and Mandakini. Some of the major tributaries are Ghaghara, Gandak, Karnali, Mahakhali, Kosi, Yamuna, Son and Mahananda.2. The Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river originating in southwestern Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo or Yarlung Tsangpo river. It flows across southern Tibet and eventually breaks into the Himalayas. The river flows southwest through the Assam Valley (India) and south through Bangladesh (where it merges with the Ganges). Some of the major tributaries are Raidak, Sankosh, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas.3. Meghna is one of the important rivers of Bangladesh and formed by the confluence of various rivers originating from the hilly areas of eastern India. The head stream of Meghna is the Barak river, rising in the hills of Manipur of northeastern India. The river finally drains into the Bay of Bengal.• Environmental issuesThe Himalayan river basins not only act as important water resources for over a billion people, but also play a crucial role in supporting the rich biodiversity found in the Himalayas. In addition to this, these river systems are intricately woven into the social life of the people, often being revered as God. Thus, it is a matter of grave concern that these river basins are increasingly witnessing adverse effects developmental activities. Factors like global warming, anthropogenic pressure and alternation of land use patterns are ushering in changes like erratic rainfall, floods and extreme drought.

Title:Biodiversity Loss

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

The Himalayan region is a vast storehouse of floral and faunal diversity with a large number of endemic species. The variety of biotic and abiotic components of the region makes it an ideal hotspot for a diversity of species to live in. Presently, this natural heritage is deteriorating because of several factors like climate change, habitat loss and anthropogenic factors like hunting and poaching. The increasing demand in the global market for the natural resources of the Himalayan region like valuable medicinal plants (Aconitum heterophyllum and Saussurea costus) and animal parts (Himalayan musk deer, shahtoosh wool from Tibetan antelope Chiru) has aggravated the problem. Consequently, the region has suffered great biodiversity loss due to over-exploitation of the same resources.The critical situation of biodiversity loss can be understood by the factors affecting it.

• Climate change: Climate change is affecting the species diversity of the Himalayas by altering the very habitat of these organisms. With a change in seasonal patterns, the life cycles of several organisms are being affected. Thus, insects depending on temperature for reaching maturity get obliterated with even a slight increase in temperature. This in turn affects the pollination of plant species, reducing population sizes because a fewer number of seeds are formed. Finally, the extinction of floral species leads to lesser availability of food for herbivores. Through this, we can comprehend the impact of climate change on an entire ecosystem.

• It causes an altitudinal shift of some species habitat towards highlands in order to remain in their range of preferred temperature.

• Slight changes in weather patterns (mainly temperature and precipitation) tend to affect vulnerable species.• Higher temperatures also may translate in forest fires, thus leading to widespread destruction of various organisms.

• Anthropogenic factors: Earlier, the Himalayas were untouched by humans and consisted of vast tracts of virgin land. Nowadays, development initiatives are making inroads at a rapid pace, often at the cost of the natural resources. According to estimates made by IUCN, almost 25% of the habitat in the eastern Himalaya hotspot has been degraded due to anthropogenic factors. The following are some of the major anthropogenic factors responsible for biodiversity loss:

• The increasing demand for Himalayan resources (water for electricity generation, medicinal plants, animal parts, land for agriculture etc.) has caused increased immigration into the region and this in turn has led to extensive clearing of the forests and grasslands for cultivation and settlements. The enormity of the problem can be gauged from the fact that from 1990-2005, Nepal lost 1.2 million ha (25%) of its forest cover.

• Overgrazing by domestic livestock has inflicted severe damage on the grasslands and this has had a negative impact on the wild herbivore populations of the region. Also, overgrazing often leads to dominance of unpalatable species.

• In the past few decades, the flora of the Himalayan forests has been overexploited by pharmaceutical industries. With the demand for medicinal plants going up by 15-25% annually and the global trade in raw medicinal plants estimated at $ 14 billion and medicines and food supplements made with herbs crossing $60 billion/year, the industry is poised at large-scale expansion. To meet this burgeoning demand, medicinal plants are being harvested from the wild in an unsustainable manner. Medicinal plant collectors are often ignorant of proper collection techniques and uproot entire plants, which affects the regeneration of the next generation. Illegal trading of plants parts is also a major cause for concern in the region (e.g. Cordyceps sinensis fetches a price of Rs. 1.5-3 lakh/kg in the market which acts as an incentive for local communities to harvest the plant from the wild).

• Uncontrolled collection of fuel-wood and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has inflicted severe damage on the forest ecosystems. Heavy dependence of the local communities on NTFPs and the lack of alternate resources have intensified the issue.

• Trans-boundary poaching is another serious threat to the faunal kingdom. While tiger and rhinoceros body parts are in great demand for their use in traditional Chinese medicines, animals like snow leopards, clouded leopards and red pandas are hunted for their pelts. The exorbitant prices (Rs. 1.5 million/kg of rhinoceros horn which is used to make medicines, aphrodisiacs and decorative items) are fuelling international trafficking. Most of the Himalayan countries have legal institutions and policy frameworks for biodiversity conservation. However, poor implementation has given a boost to illegal hunting, smuggling of animal parts and poaching.

• Widespread logging has led to decrease in vegetation cover that causes soil erosion along the mountain slopes and increases the vulnerability to landslides.

• Increase in the inflow of tourists in the region is affecting the region through increase in pollution levels (tourist numbers crossed 50,000 in 2008 in Ladakh district alone). However, if organized in a sustainable, environmentally conscious manner, the sector can serve as a source of income generation for local populations as well as a platform for awareness about the Himalayas resources.

• Various other threats to the biodiversity include mining activities, construction of roads and establishment of large hydro-electrical projects (e.g. Tehri dam across the Bhagirathi river).Hence, biodiversity loss in the Himalayan region is a serious issue and the situation can be ameliorated to some extent by strict enforcement of laws, rejuvenation of traditional methods of conservation and awareness generation.

Title:Climate Change and Glacial retreat

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

Climate change refers to any long-term deviation from normal (expected) weather conditions over a period of time. Apart from natural factors like intensity of solar radiation, tectonic movements and volcanic activities, anthropogenic factors like amount of carbon emissions, change in land use and deforestation also influence climate. Some ecosystems are more vulnerable than others in terms of the impacts of climate change on them. The Himalayas, home to some of the largest glaciers in the world, are highly sensitive to any climate aberration, which is manifested in glacial retreat, untimely floods and species extinctions.The Himalayas have the largest concentration of glaciers outside of the polar ice caps, covering 33,000 square kilometers. It is the source of nine of Asia’s biggest rivers, whose basins are home to over 1.3 billion people. Himalayan glaciers cover about 17% of the mountain region. Recent studies have found that 67% of these glaciers are now rapidly retreating because of global climate change due to increasing emission of greenhouse gases. With the 0.03 to 0.06° C rise in global temperature, glaciers have thinned and in severe cases, retreated. This could mean disaster for the countless people relying on the glaciers to feed the north Indian rivers during the dry seasons. Scientists found that between 1985 and 2001, the Gangotri glacier had been receding at a rate of about 23 m per year.The broad outcomes of glacial retreat can be:

• Reduced water availability to people in the plains because of the detrimental affect on major river systems.

• Increased intensity and frequency of natural disasters such as avalanches, floods and droughts.

• Increase in the number of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). These outbursts cause catastrophic damage to life, property, and infrastructure.• Increased incidences of erosion in barren areas that have negligible vegetative cover.• Increase in soil erosion and landslides because of the loose debris (terminal moraines) receding left behind by receding glaciers. The debris serves as source material for future landslides.Thus, it is crucial to comprehend the manifold repercussions of climate change on the Himalayan glaciers and the impact it will have on human life as well as the biodiversity of the region.

Title:Cultural change in the Himalayas

Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya

The communities living in the Himalayas have various ethnic affinities and display a variety of social systems, religions and customs. Over the centuries, the Himalayan people have witnessed invasions, migrations, political unrest and several wars. The culture of the people of this region has been shaped as a result of all these external and internal dynamics and the intermingling of various tribes, often of different religious affiliations. The topographical and ecological factors of the area have also played an important role in shaping the culture because of the heavy dependence of people on natural resources for their livelihood and sustenance. Thus, the culture has evolved into an interesting amalgam of various social customs and traditions and is manifested in the rich variety of languages, clothes, festivals and rituals followed.In recent times, the traditional lifestyle is slowly changing traditional family structures and customs like polygamy are fast fading; systems of subsistence farming are giving way to cultivation of cash crops to meet the demand of increasing population as well as increased food demand from the plains The main causes for this societal change are an increased exposure to external influences through better road networks and communication facilities, integration of local markets with the regional economy and to some extent, the degradation of natural resources.

• Development of infrastructure: Extension of road networks to remote areas, increased mobile coverage, wider spread of education facilities and better television facilities are changing the cultural patterns within Himalayan communities. In the northeastern state of Sikkim, the road network spans 3727 km in 2003 (national highways, state highways, district roads and border roads), an increase from 1516 km in 1993. Hitherto remote and inaccessible regions are now attracting people from various places, resulting in an intermingling of cultures at an unprecedented level. Exposure to external influences is subtly changing the social structure with erosion of local customs and food habits, fascination with foreign customs and decrease in use of traditional costumes. Youngsters are now slowly letting go of traditional practices like polygamy, and the mandatory systems of one family member joining the monastery is fading. In addition traditional occupations like agriculture are not much favoured. Another issue affecting the culture of the area is of urban migration. Better job opportunities and a different lifestyle are attracting the youth to cities, often causing breakdown of the traditional family structure. With the youth and men migrating to urban centres, women and elderly people find themselves burdened with managing their households and coping with the socioeconomic consequences of urban migration. However, increased mobility and access to information is helping all sections of the society (farmers are availing government schemes, drop-out rates are decreasing, the per capita income is increasing etc.).

• Education: Increased numbers of schools in villages and opening of institutions of higher education has resulted in higher literacy rates (71.62% in Uttrakhand in 2001 as against the national average of 61%), better employment prospects and often a change in outlook. In the state of Himachal Pradesh, up to 536 government schools have introduced IT facilities for better learning and is enhancing the quality of education given in the region. Education is breeding aspirations and often youth find themselves wanting to migrate to cities and towns in search of jobs.

• Tourism: With the rapid spread of tourism as a major source of income, several traditional economic activities like agriculture are being replaced with occupations like tour operators, restaurant owners, porters and trekking guides. In Sikkim alone, there is an increase in tourist influx by 25% per annum, which shows the growth of the sector in the area. In Nepal, the development of the tourism sector is serving as a blessing for the economy with most income generation occurring at the local level. On the other hand, an increased influx of tourists (domestic and foreign) is bringing in new ideas and exposing the local communities to different lifestyles, often at the cost of traditional customs. Also, with the betterment of village economies, some level of economic inequality has crept into communities.Thus, it is imperative to understand that in today’s day and age mountain communities are undergoing cultural changes and are slowly being re-oriented towards the outer world. The Himalayan culture, comprising of dynamic and vibrant communities, is changing. This change, like all changes, has both negative and positive aspects. Hopefully, a healthy balance will be struck between traditional customs and modern influences, so the new develops, but not at the cost of the old.

(Source- https://himalayaforum.org/)