Title:Religions and Festivals
Credit:Compiled
from multiple sources by Pragya
The
inhabitants of the Himalayas are a diverse amalgam of people from various
ethnic backgrounds (Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Mongoloid and Austro-Asian), leading to
a multicultural diversity. This diversity finds vibrant expression in the
differing belief systems and forms of religions practiced across the Himalayan
region, each with their own set of festivals and customs.
• Religions:The people of the Himalayas follow several religions
and in many instances, interaction among ethnic groups has lead to considerable
influences of one religion on another. It is interesting to note that the
various religions have never been a cause for friction among communities and
have traversed social barriers to coalesce into the culture of the region.
• Hinduism is the most widely followed religion with several
holy shrines (Amarnath caves in Kashmir, Kedarnath and Badrinath in
Uttarakhand, Gangotri and Yamnotri glaciers – the origin of the holy rivers of
Ganga and Yamuna and Pasupati temple in Nepal) located in the Himalayas. Lord
Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction whose abode is Mount Kailash and various
forms of Durga or goddess are revered by the people.
• Buddhism is the religion followed by the people inhabiting
Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), Lahaul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Sikkim,
Bhutan, parts of Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh. Home to some magnificent
monasteries (like the 400 year old Tawang monastery, Lamayuru monastery in
Ladakh or Key monastery in Spiti), this land is also famous for being the
residence of His Holiness The Dalai Lama.
• The inhabitants of Kashmir mainly follow Islam, which was
introduced by traders from Central Asia as well as Muslim invaders.
• Different tribes also follow forms of animist beliefs and
religions like Donyi-Polo (the religion venerating the Sun and the Moon). There
are small pockets of people following Christianity in some areas.
• Festivals:As a direct impact of the religious diversity of the
region, varied festivals are celebrated, replete with vibrant dances and
customs that often fascinate an outsider. Festivals not only mark important dates
in the religious calendar but also play an economic role in the form of trade
fairs where food and other goods are bartered.
• Losar is an important Buddhist festival celebrated in the last
week of February. The festival is famous because of the vibrant chham dance,
which commemorates the assassination of Langdarma, a cruel Tibetan king of the
9th century, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. The dance is an
elaborate display of colourful costumes and masks. The Dosmoche and Hemis
festivals are other important Buddhist celebrations. The Namsoong Festival is
celebrated by the Lepcha community in Sikkim on the first day of "Kurneet
Lovo" (December/January) and continues for a week. It also coincides with
the Sonam Lossong festival of the Bhutias.
• Several Hindu festivals are celebrated in the region. Basant
Panchmi marks the fifth day of spring, and is celebrated to welcome the spring
season. People wear shades of yellow to signify the glory of nature and the end
of winter. Baisakhi is celebrated to commemorate the harvest in April. Another
festival to celebrate the year’s harvest is Makar Sankranti (Maghey Sankranti
in Nepali) in the month of “Magh” (January). Dussehra or Dassai as it is called
in Nepali, commemorates the victory of good over evil. Diwali is known as the
festival of lights and commemorates the victory of the Hindu king Rama over
Ravana. It is celebrated in October-November with great enthusiasm especially
in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The Chhari or Manimahesh Yatra is
celebrated in August in Manimahesh, located on the Kailash Mount, at the foot
of which lies a lake (altitude of 4,115 m). The annual religious procession
starts in August and devotees of Lord Shiva cover a challenging 14 km trek from
Hadsar to Manimahesh barefoot, chanting prayers. At Bharmour the nomadic Gaddis
hold a fair for six days.
• There are several fairs held like the famous La Darcha Fair in
Lahaul and Spiti district where woolen and wooden products, food items (Tibetan
tea, salt, rice) and metals (copper, gold) are sold. Yaks and Chumurthi horses
are bartered in the fair and the evenings are full of dancing, drinking,
horseracing and feasting. The Tapkeshwar fair, held on Shivratri (a festival to
worship the Hindu god of destruction, Shiva) attracts thousands of devotees to
offer their prayers at the banks of the Tons river in Uttarakhand.In recent
times, several fairs and festivals are being organized that showcase the
cultural variety and exuberance of the Himalayas. This display of the
traditional customs and religious practices of the region not only earn revenue
for the indigenous people of the area but also allow us to understand its
magnificent cultural heritage.
Title:The Ecology of the Himalayas
Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya
The Himalayas are home to a fascinating diversity of flora and
fauna because of the wide spectrum of climate, rainfall, soil and altitude
found here. A wide range of altitudes, various geological formations, climatic
variations and rich floral and faunal diversity characterize the Himalayas.The
species found in the region range from the elusive snow leopard in the
snow-bound high altitude areas to the one-horned rhinoceros of the marshy
foothills. The floral diversity is a fascinating mixture with prominent
medicinal plants, gymnosperms like the cancer curing Taxus baccata, species of
Rhododendron, Meconopsis, Gentiana, orchids and numerous species of wild
grasses.This treasure of biodiversity and high degree of endemism has lead the
region to be identified as a biodiversity hotspot. The spectacular biodiversity
of the region can be gauged by the presence of a large number of endemic
species – 3,160 plants, 12 mammals, 15 birds, 48 reptiles, 42 amphibians and 33
fish.Several international organizations have devised parameters to assess and
conserve the natural resources of the Himalayas. Four of the global
biodiversity hotspots identified by Conservation International are found in the
Himalayan region namely, the Indo-Burma hotspot, the mountains of Central Asia,
the mountains of southwest China and the Himalaya hotspot.Similarly, there are
12 Global 200 Ecoregions found in the Himalayan region indicating their
importance as habitats that support unique flora and fauna. Prominent
ecoregions are the eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests, western
Himalayan temperate forests, Tibetan plateau steppe and eastern Himalayan
alpine meadows.According to Birdlife International, 1106 Important Bird Areas
(IBAs) are found in the Himalayas while Plantlife International has identified
53 Important Plant Areas (IPAs) for medicinal plants in the region. These
indicators demonstrate the astounding variations in habitats found in the
Himalayas and the resulting diversity in terms of flora and fauna. Today, this
natural heritage of the Himalayas is getting eroded because of pressures like
climate change (manifested in the alarming retreat of several glaciers, altered
rainfall patterns, onset of floods etc.) and anthropogenic pressures
(deforestation, harvesting of economically important floral and faunal species,
changing land use patterns, environmentally irresponsible tourism, poaching
etc.). Inadequate policies, weak management and institutional structures and
inadequate data tend to aggravate the situation. The people living in the Himalayas
are very closely linked with their environment, thus making issues of natural
resource management socially, economically and ecologically significant. Hence,
while trying to comprehend the enormous ecological diversity the Himalayas
offer, we must attempt to recognize its ongoing exploitation.
Title:River Systems of the Himalayas
Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya
The sources of the Himalayan rivers lie in the melting snow and
glaciers, which explains the constant flow of these rivers throughout the year.
There are 19 major river systems that drain the Himalayas. The waters of these
rivers have important economic, social and environmental significance for
people living in the Himalayas as well as the vast plains that are drained by
the rivers. The two largest river systems have been described below:• The Indus
River System, which is mainly fed by glaciers in the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush
and the Karakoram originates near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, runs through Ladakh
(in Jammu & Kashmir, where it meets the river Zanskar) and the northern
areas of Gilgit-Baltistan, finally draining into the Arabian Sea off the coast
of Karachi (Pakistan The principal tributaries of the Indus are Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The Indus is the third largest river in the Indian
subcontinent in terms of annual flow (207 cu. km).• The
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna River System is made up of three major rivers:1. The
Ganga is approximately 2,510 km long rising in Uttarakhand and draining into
the Bay of Bengal. The headwaters of the Ganges are composed of various small
streams, with the six longest headstreams being Bhagirathi (the source stream,
rising at the foot of Gangotri glacier), Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini,
Pindar and Mandakini. Some of the major tributaries are Ghaghara, Gandak,
Karnali, Mahakhali, Kosi, Yamuna, Son and Mahananda.2. The Brahmaputra is a
trans-boundary river originating in southwestern Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo or
Yarlung Tsangpo river. It flows across southern Tibet and eventually breaks
into the Himalayas. The river flows southwest through the Assam Valley (India)
and south through Bangladesh (where it merges with the Ganges). Some of the
major tributaries are Raidak, Sankosh, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya
and the Manas.3. Meghna is one of the important rivers of Bangladesh and formed
by the confluence of various rivers originating from the hilly areas of eastern
India. The head stream of Meghna is the Barak river, rising in the hills of
Manipur of northeastern India. The river finally drains into the Bay of
Bengal.• Environmental issuesThe Himalayan river basins not only act as
important water resources for over a billion people, but also play a crucial
role in supporting the rich biodiversity found in the Himalayas. In addition to
this, these river systems are intricately woven into the social life of the
people, often being revered as God. Thus, it is a matter of grave concern that
these river basins are increasingly witnessing adverse effects developmental
activities. Factors like global warming, anthropogenic pressure and alternation
of land use patterns are ushering in changes like erratic rainfall, floods and
extreme drought.
Title:Biodiversity Loss
Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya
The Himalayan region is a vast storehouse of floral and faunal
diversity with a large number of endemic species. The variety of biotic and
abiotic components of the region makes it an ideal hotspot for a diversity of
species to live in. Presently, this natural heritage is deteriorating because
of several factors like climate change, habitat loss and anthropogenic factors
like hunting and poaching. The increasing demand in the global market for the
natural resources of the Himalayan region like valuable medicinal plants
(Aconitum heterophyllum and Saussurea costus) and animal parts (Himalayan musk
deer, shahtoosh wool from Tibetan antelope Chiru) has aggravated the problem.
Consequently, the region has suffered great biodiversity loss due to
over-exploitation of the same resources.The critical situation of biodiversity
loss can be understood by the factors affecting it.
• Climate change: Climate change is affecting the species
diversity of the Himalayas by altering the very habitat of these organisms.
With a change in seasonal patterns, the life cycles of several organisms are
being affected. Thus, insects depending on temperature for reaching maturity
get obliterated with even a slight increase in temperature. This in turn
affects the pollination of plant species, reducing population sizes because a
fewer number of seeds are formed. Finally, the extinction of floral species
leads to lesser availability of food for herbivores. Through this, we can
comprehend the impact of climate change on an entire ecosystem.
• It causes an altitudinal shift of some species habitat
towards highlands in order to remain in their range of preferred temperature.
• Slight changes in weather patterns (mainly temperature and
precipitation) tend to affect vulnerable species.• Higher temperatures also may
translate in forest fires, thus leading to widespread destruction of various
organisms.
• Anthropogenic factors: Earlier, the Himalayas were untouched
by humans and consisted of vast tracts of virgin land. Nowadays, development
initiatives are making inroads at a rapid pace, often at the cost of the
natural resources. According to estimates made by IUCN, almost 25% of the
habitat in the eastern Himalaya hotspot has been degraded due to anthropogenic
factors. The following are some of the major anthropogenic factors responsible
for biodiversity loss:
• The increasing demand for Himalayan resources (water for
electricity generation, medicinal plants, animal parts, land for agriculture
etc.) has caused increased immigration into the region and this in turn has led
to extensive clearing of the forests and grasslands for cultivation and
settlements. The enormity of the problem can be gauged from the fact that from
1990-2005, Nepal lost 1.2 million ha (25%) of its forest cover.
• Overgrazing by domestic livestock has inflicted severe damage
on the grasslands and this has had a negative impact on the wild herbivore
populations of the region. Also, overgrazing often leads to dominance of
unpalatable species.
• In the past few decades, the flora of the Himalayan forests
has been overexploited by pharmaceutical industries. With the demand for
medicinal plants going up by 15-25% annually and the global trade in raw
medicinal plants estimated at $ 14 billion and medicines and food supplements
made with herbs crossing $60 billion/year, the industry is poised at
large-scale expansion. To meet this burgeoning demand, medicinal plants are
being harvested from the wild in an unsustainable manner. Medicinal plant
collectors are often ignorant of proper collection techniques and uproot entire
plants, which affects the regeneration of the next generation. Illegal trading
of plants parts is also a major cause for concern in the region (e.g. Cordyceps
sinensis fetches a price of Rs. 1.5-3 lakh/kg in the market which acts as an
incentive for local communities to harvest the plant from the wild).
• Uncontrolled collection of fuel-wood and non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) has inflicted severe damage on the forest ecosystems. Heavy
dependence of the local communities on NTFPs and the lack of alternate
resources have intensified the issue.
• Trans-boundary poaching is another serious threat to the
faunal kingdom. While tiger and rhinoceros body parts are in great demand for
their use in traditional Chinese medicines, animals like snow leopards, clouded
leopards and red pandas are hunted for their pelts. The exorbitant prices (Rs.
1.5 million/kg of rhinoceros horn which is used to make medicines, aphrodisiacs
and decorative items) are fuelling international trafficking. Most of the
Himalayan countries have legal institutions and policy frameworks for
biodiversity conservation. However, poor implementation has given a boost to
illegal hunting, smuggling of animal parts and poaching.
• Widespread logging has led to decrease in vegetation cover that
causes soil erosion along the mountain slopes and increases the vulnerability
to landslides.
• Increase in the inflow of tourists in the region is affecting
the region through increase in pollution levels (tourist numbers crossed 50,000
in 2008 in Ladakh district alone). However, if organized in a sustainable,
environmentally conscious manner, the sector can serve as a source of income
generation for local populations as well as a platform for awareness about the
Himalayas resources.
• Various other threats to the biodiversity include mining
activities, construction of roads and establishment of large hydro-electrical
projects (e.g. Tehri dam across the Bhagirathi river).Hence, biodiversity loss
in the Himalayan region is a serious issue and the situation can be ameliorated
to some extent by strict enforcement of laws, rejuvenation of traditional
methods of conservation and awareness generation.
Title:Climate Change and Glacial retreat
Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya
Climate change refers to any long-term deviation from normal
(expected) weather conditions over a period of time. Apart from natural factors
like intensity of solar radiation, tectonic movements and volcanic activities,
anthropogenic factors like amount of carbon emissions, change in land use and
deforestation also influence climate. Some ecosystems are more vulnerable than
others in terms of the impacts of climate change on them. The Himalayas, home
to some of the largest glaciers in the world, are highly sensitive to any
climate aberration, which is manifested in glacial retreat, untimely floods and
species extinctions.The Himalayas have the largest concentration of glaciers
outside of the polar ice caps, covering 33,000 square kilometers. It is the
source of nine of Asia’s biggest rivers, whose basins are home to over 1.3
billion people. Himalayan glaciers cover about 17% of the mountain region.
Recent studies have found that 67% of these glaciers are now rapidly retreating
because of global climate change due to increasing emission of greenhouse
gases. With the 0.03 to 0.06° C rise in global temperature, glaciers have
thinned and in severe cases, retreated. This could mean disaster for the
countless people relying on the glaciers to feed the north Indian rivers during
the dry seasons. Scientists found that between 1985 and 2001, the Gangotri
glacier had been receding at a rate of about 23 m per year.The broad outcomes
of glacial retreat can be:
• Reduced water availability to people in the plains because of
the detrimental affect on major river systems.
• Increased intensity and frequency of natural disasters such as
avalanches, floods and droughts.
• Increase in the number of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOFs). These outbursts cause catastrophic damage to life, property, and
infrastructure.• Increased incidences of erosion in barren areas that have
negligible vegetative cover.• Increase in soil erosion and landslides because
of the loose debris (terminal moraines) receding left behind by receding
glaciers. The debris serves as source material for future landslides.Thus, it
is crucial to comprehend the manifold repercussions of climate change on the
Himalayan glaciers and the impact it will have on human life as well as the
biodiversity of the region.
Title:Cultural change in the Himalayas
Credit:Compiled from multiple sources by Pragya
The communities living in the Himalayas have various ethnic
affinities and display a variety of social systems, religions and customs. Over
the centuries, the Himalayan people have witnessed invasions, migrations,
political unrest and several wars. The culture of the people of this region has
been shaped as a result of all these external and internal dynamics and the
intermingling of various tribes, often of different religious affiliations. The
topographical and ecological factors of the area have also played an important
role in shaping the culture because of the heavy dependence of people on
natural resources for their livelihood and sustenance. Thus, the culture has
evolved into an interesting amalgam of various social customs and traditions
and is manifested in the rich variety of languages, clothes, festivals and
rituals followed.In recent times, the traditional lifestyle is slowly changing
traditional family structures and customs like polygamy are fast fading;
systems of subsistence farming are giving way to cultivation of cash crops to
meet the demand of increasing population as well as increased food demand from
the plains The main causes for this societal change are an increased exposure
to external influences through better road networks and communication
facilities, integration of local markets with the regional economy and to some
extent, the degradation of natural resources.
• Development of infrastructure: Extension of road networks to
remote areas, increased mobile coverage, wider spread of education facilities
and better television facilities are changing the cultural patterns within
Himalayan communities. In the northeastern state of Sikkim, the road network
spans 3727 km in 2003 (national highways, state highways, district roads and
border roads), an increase from 1516 km in 1993. Hitherto remote and
inaccessible regions are now attracting people from various places, resulting
in an intermingling of cultures at an unprecedented level. Exposure to external
influences is subtly changing the social structure with erosion of local
customs and food habits, fascination with foreign customs and decrease in use
of traditional costumes. Youngsters are now slowly letting go of traditional
practices like polygamy, and the mandatory systems of one family member joining
the monastery is fading. In addition traditional occupations like agriculture
are not much favoured. Another issue affecting the culture of the area is of
urban migration. Better job opportunities and a different lifestyle are
attracting the youth to cities, often causing breakdown of the traditional
family structure. With the youth and men migrating to urban centres, women and
elderly people find themselves burdened with managing their households and
coping with the socioeconomic consequences of urban migration. However,
increased mobility and access to information is helping all sections of the
society (farmers are availing government schemes, drop-out rates are
decreasing, the per capita income is increasing etc.).
• Education: Increased numbers of schools in villages and
opening of institutions of higher education has resulted in higher literacy
rates (71.62% in Uttrakhand in 2001 as against the national average of 61%),
better employment prospects and often a change in outlook. In the state of
Himachal Pradesh, up to 536 government schools have introduced IT facilities
for better learning and is enhancing the quality of education given in the
region. Education is breeding aspirations and often youth find themselves
wanting to migrate to cities and towns in search of jobs.
• Tourism: With the rapid spread of tourism as a major source of
income, several traditional economic activities like agriculture are being
replaced with occupations like tour operators, restaurant owners, porters and
trekking guides. In Sikkim alone, there is an increase in tourist influx by 25%
per annum, which shows the growth of the sector in the area. In Nepal, the
development of the tourism sector is serving as a blessing for the economy with
most income generation occurring at the local level. On the other hand, an
increased influx of tourists (domestic and foreign) is bringing in new ideas
and exposing the local communities to different lifestyles, often at the cost
of traditional customs. Also, with the betterment of village economies, some
level of economic inequality has crept into communities.Thus, it is imperative
to understand that in today’s day and age mountain communities are undergoing
cultural changes and are slowly being re-oriented towards the outer world. The
Himalayan culture, comprising of dynamic and vibrant communities, is changing.
This change, like all changes, has both negative and positive aspects.
Hopefully, a healthy balance will be struck between traditional customs and
modern influences, so the new develops, but not at the cost of the old.
(Source- https://himalayaforum.org/)